The Opium Wars: How Britain Forced Its Drug Trade on China
In the British imagination, the so-called ‘Opium Wars’ between Britain and China in the 19th century conjure romantic visions of oriental hedonism and seedy opium dens. However, the name ‘Opium Wars’ is. . .
In the British imagination, the so-called ‘Opium Wars’ between Britain and China in the 19th century conjure romantic visions of oriental hedonism and seedy opium dens. However, the name ‘Opium Wars’ is something of a misnomer. Although they were centered on the lucrative opium trade to China, the origins of the First Opium War (1839-1842) and the Second Opium War (1856-1860) were far deeper and far more complex. The wars were the product of British expansionism in trade in the 19th century and the isolationist foreign policy adopted by China during the Qing dynasty. The issue of opium only became significant due to the Chinese refusal to deal in anything other than silver with British merchants, leading the British to foster opium consumption in China in order to provide a solution to the growing silver deficit. When the Chinese responded by attempting to arrest opium consumption across the country, the British declared war. Table of ContentsKEY DATESKEY FIGURESBritish Expansionism Versus Chinese Isolationism: A Perfect StormOpium: A Nation in ThrallThe First Opium War and the Treaty of NankingUnresolved Issues: The Second Opium WarLegacySites to VisitFilm, Literature, and TVFurther ResearchRelatedKEY DATES4 September 1839 Battle of Kowloon29 August 1842 Treaty of NankingOctober 1856 Seizing of British ship The Arrow by the ChineseDecember 1857 Battle of Canton18 October 1860 Burning of the Summer PalaceKEY FIGURESDaoguang Emperor Qing Emperor of China (1820-1850)Lin Zexu Qing court scholar and fierce opponent of the opium tradeLord Palmerston British Foreign Secretary (1830-1841)Xianfeng Emperor Qing Emperor of China (1850-1861)Earl of Elgin High Commissioner and Plenipotentiary (China and Far East)British Expansionism Versus Chinese Isolationism: A Perfect StormThe causes of the Opium Wars lie in the divergent foreign and economic policies adopted by the British and Chinese during the 19th century. In this period, China became increasingly inward-looking, restricting trade with foreign powers and rejecting foreign technologies, goods, and services. In part, this was due to a sense of self-importance on the part of the Chinese, as they felt that foreign goods and technologies would necessarily be inferior to those that they produced themselves. Perhaps more significantly, the Chinese also had no need for foreign imports: the vastness and diversity of its own territories meant that it could afford to be basically self-subsistent. The Chinese were dismissive of overtures that came from Western European powers and were only received into the imperial court as part of tributary missions. This policy became increasingly untenable in the early 19th century, as Western expansion into Asia began to encroach on Chinese territory. Chinese ‘sinocentrism’ and Western imperial hubris began to clash as European powers such as the British began to demand greater levels of economic interaction. In this period, the British were on the make, rapidly expanding their already enormous empire, and had set their sights on the Far East as the next source of wealth and commodities to feed their expanding imperial territory. The British did not have designs on conquering China but rather wanted access to Chinese goods and commodities, the most important of which was tea. Tea was a luxury product that was in high demand back in Britain, and the British needed access to their crop in order to fill the insatiable consumer demand back at home. The Chinese would not accept any British goods or technologies in return for the export of tea and instead demanded only silver, which in turn created a major silver deficit for the British. The opium trade, in this context, emerged as a convenient and attractive way to export goods to China and generate revenue that could be used to purchase tea. This was also a key source of tension between the two countries, as the British began to illegally export opium to China and encouraged consumption among the Chinese population. Opium: A Nation in ThrallThe nature of British exports of opium to China was a significant source of tension between the two countries. By 1838, the British were exporting approximately 1400 tons of opium to the Chinese market, mainly supplied by stocks planted in colonial territories in India. Opium consumption became a serious social problem among the Chinese population, limiting the productivity of the workforce and resulting in social ills such as crime and violence. The Chinese government became increasingly resentful of British interference and viewed the actions of the British as insulting and an encroachment onto Chinese sovereignty. In 1839 the Daoguang Emperor ordered the destruction of opium supplies that had been exported to China by the British and exhorted a promise from the British delegation that stated that they would desist the illegal opium exports. However, the British government, faced with considerable opposition from domestic merchants, later decreed that the promise had been obtained illegally, leading to a breakdown in relations, escalating tension, and the outbreak of war. Ultimately, it might be suggested that the reason opium took on such a significance to provoke war was the perceived humiliation of the Chinese court. By effectively holding vast portions of the Chinese population in the thrall of an illegally exported narcotic, the British undermined the authority of the Qing Emperor and violated Chinese law and customs. The conflict that emerged was, therefore, a Qing response to the increasingly imperialist and colonialist attitudes of the British and an attempt to reassert Chinese authority. The First Opium War and the Treaty of NankingThe First Opium War broke out in 1839 following a Chinese state crackdown on the use of opium. Under the instructions of Lin Zexu, a policymaker in the Qing court, the sale of the drug was banned, and large quantities were seized and burned. During the summer of 1839, tensions between British merchants and Chinese soldiers escalated, and in response to localized violence, British navy forces were sent to Kowloon, in Hong Kong, to protect British interests. The Chinese had imposed an embargo on trade with the British, meaning that the merchant fleet and navy were unable to re-provision. On 4 September, following a tense standoff as the British attempted to buy supplies, fighting broke out. The Chinese ships that had been sent to enforce the embargo were defeated, and the British were finally able to access the town. The battle at Kowloon was followed in October by fighting at Chuenpi in October, in which the Chinese made considerable losses, but no side emerged as an outright victor. However, in 1940, the British returned with a whole-scale offensive, focusing on the regions around the Pearl River and the Yellow Sea. British naval successes during the war were primarily a result of their superior ships. British vessels were better armed and provisioned and were more maneuverable than their Chinese counterparts. As the British cannon, in the majority of cases, had a greater range than those of the Chinese, the British were able to fire at the Chinese ships from a safe distance. In addition to this, the British commanders were superior strategists, meaning that they often gained an early advantage in pitched battles with the Chinese forces and often inflicted deadly blows before the Chinese could even mount an offensive. Successive defeats finally brought the Chinese to the negotiating table in 1842. The 1842 Treaty of Nanking represented the cessation of hostilities of the First Opium War and was a crushing and humiliating defeat for the Chinese Qing dynasty. It mandated the establishment of four trading ports that would also have a consular presence, thereby opening up China to the world stage for the first time. The Treaty of Nanking mandated the establishment of four key trading posts for the British. These four posts were established at Canton, Amoy, Fuzhou, and Ningpo and aimed to allow the British to trade with any party they wished. Furthermore, the taxes applicable on these trading posts were required to be set by agreement between the British and the Qing rulers, and the British were to be given access to treat with the local Chinese officials. Unresolved Issues: The Second Opium WarThe First Opium War ended in 1842 in a crushing defeat and humiliation for the Chinese and their Qing rulers, and the resolution ultimately failed to address the main grievances and concerns held by the Chinese. In the aftermath of the First Opium War, the illegal opium trade continued to grow, and British economic incursion into Chinese affairs continued apace. In this respect, it may be argued that the Second Opium War (1856-1860) was a direct consequence of the inadequate resolution to the First Opium War. However, it should also be noted that the Second Opium War represented a more aggressive and demanding stance on behalf of the British and the French, who were ultimately to join in coalition with the British forces. The Second Opium War was fought over very similar economic and diplomatic issues as the First Opium War, and in this respect, it may be seen as a direct continuation of hostilities that broke out in 1839. Under the conditions of the Treaty of Nanking, the Chinese were forced to abandon the Canton System and open ports for trade with Western powers. It also established lines of direct communication by allowing for a consular presence in these strategic ports, thereby opening up access to imperial politics. In the aftermath of the First Opium War, the opium trade continued to grow, which was humiliating for the Qing emperor and caused a variety of social problems within China itself as a result of the widespread dependence upon the narcotic. Furthermore, the Chinese were forced to pay reparations to the British, a further blow to their prestige. The unfair conditions of the Treaty of Nanking reinforced tension between the Chinese and British and ultimately failed to address the principal issues at stake, as the British still didn’t have the trading terms they wished for, and the Chinese were humiliated and plagued by the problem of widespread dependency on opium. However, during the 1850s, the British began to place a growing number of demands upon the Chinese state, demanding that they renegotiate the Treaty of Nanking. The main pressure from the British was directed at the legalization of the opium trade and the establishment of diplomatic relations between the two countries. The British also demanded the establishment of more open trading relations and wished to have a consular presence in Beijing. In addition to this, the pressure on the Qing grew as more Western powers began to make similar demands, using the leverage provided by the British. France joined with the British forces, and the Americans offered diplomatic support as the conflict progressed. The Qing refused to acknowledge the British demands and instead wished to dispense with the original Treaty of Nanking and to shake off British imperial pressure entirely. The Qing dynasty maintained its isolationist position and attempted to remain closed to the rest of the world. One of the key short-term catalysts for the war was the seizing of the British ship The Arrow, which had been crewed by pro-British Chinese merchants. The British had permitted the ship to fly the Union Jack, as they declared The Arrow under their protection. However, the Chinese authorities seized the ship and classified it as a pirate vessel. The crew were eventually released, but the British governor of Hong Kong decided to take action against the Chinese for the insult to the British flag. He attacked Canton, thereby provoking widespread hostilities. In addition to this, the French decided to join the venture, based on the justification that a French priest had been executed whilst traveling in Guanxi province. This represented a further struggle for sovereignty on the part of the Chinese, as the issue of Christian missionaries to China was to become a significant issue of status for the Chinese. Canton eventually fell to British and French allied forces in January of 1958, and the British attempted to capitalize on their success by pressuring the Qing to allow further opening up of Chinese trade. They moved into Guangzhou, eventually forcing the Chinese to come to terms in the summer of 1858 and opening a number of Chinese ports to British trade. The terms of this treaty were unacceptable to the Chinese, and hostilities soon resumed and continued through 1859 with some significant Chinese successes. However, a wholesale defeat by the French at the British at Baliqiao on 21 September 1860 proved to be the final blow for the Qing. Lord Elgin ordered the burning of the Summer Palace, just a few miles from Beijing, a profound symbol of European might and Chinese humiliation. LegacyThe First and Second Opium Wars are evidently inextricably linked. The same root issues dominated the second conflict, involving the Western need to expand trading outposts in China and the will to establish a diplomatic presence in Beijing. Furthermore, the humiliation and tension caused by the unfair settlement of the first conflict resulted in antagonistic behavior by the Chinese, including the seizing of the ship The Arrow and the widespread anti-foreign sentiment that characterized the Chinese state. However, it should also be noted that the Second Opium War represented an acceleration of aggression on the part of the British and the new involvement of the French. The international context had changed, and this ultimately was to provide the most significant cause for the outbreak of hostilities. China’s diplomatic isolation did not really end, therefore, until after the Second Opium War and the establishment of the Self-Strengthening Movement (1861-1895). This was a movement dedicated to the reform and premised on the notion that China’s decline stemmed from its isolationist policy. Its leaders advocated that greater cooperation was required with foreign leaders in order to both learn from their expertise and protect China against further humiliation. This marked a key psychological break with the past, and it began to be the case that the Qing recognized that Western technology did have some things of value to offer to the Chinese. The Self-Strengthening Movement was a direct consequence of the Opium Wars and is indicative of the opening up of the Chinese intellectual classes to the West, which in turn prompted the Qing to accommodate a more Westward-oriented approach as well. Paradoxically, this opening up of China to Western ideas and technologies was accompanied by a long-standing sense of resentment against the intervention of European powers that endures within the Chinese polity until the present day. The Chinese sense of humiliation at the hands of European empires has left a deep scar on the country’s people and was a key driver of many of the cataclysmic political changes that occurred in China in the 20th century. Sites to VisitThe National Army Museum, Chelsea, London. This excellent museum and archive contains a number of artifacts relating to the Opium Wars, including original opium pipes, war medals given to British fighters, and a number of paintings. Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington, London. The V&A provides an excellent introduction to their collection relating to the Opium Wars by setting these objects in the broader context of the Victorian vision of China and Japan during the 19th century. This provides some of the broader cultural contexts for the wars and demonstrates the wider ideas and concepts that framed British foreign policy in this period. The Opium War Museum, Dongguan, China. China’s major museum devoted to the Opium Wars traces the history of the conflict and provides a more general cultural and socio-economic context for Chinese society in this period. Film, Literature, and TVRiver of Smoke by Amitav Ghosh. In the second novel of his Ibis trilogy, Ghosh traces the lives of a wide range of characters set in a period one year before the First Opium War. The Opium War a 1997 historical epic film made in China and directed by Xie Jin. At the time of production, the film was the most expensive ever made in China and was received to great critical acclaim inside China and in the West. It was released to coincide with the British departure from Hong Kong in 1997. Further ResearchW. Travis Hanes and Frank Sanello,The Opium Wars: The Addiction of One Empire and the Corruption of Another, (Sourcebooks, 2002). An entertaining narrative account of the Opium Wars, with an emphasis on Chinese perspectives. Peter Ward Fay,The Opium War, 1840-1842, (University of North Carolina Press, 1975). Reliable and thorough account of the introduction of opium to China, and the causes and consequences of the First Opium War. Julia Lovell,The Opium War: Drugs, Dreams and the Making of China, (Picador, 2012). Useful analysis that uses the Opium Wars as a basis from which to explore China’s modern history and relationship with the West. Editor’s Note: This article is adapted from Great Events in British History: An Anglophile’s Guide to British History, available inpaperbackandebookfrom the Anglotopia Store, or onAmazon. Browse the whole column in ourGreat Events in British History hub.