The Skies of China (Part 4): Naval Aviation Strikes Shanghai (1937)
The opening of a new front in Central China in August 1937 was accompanied by the massive deployment of Japanese naval aviation from both aircraft carriers and land bases against the Nanjing government\'s air force. Following heavy initial losses among their bomber formations, the Japanese secured air superiority through the successful combat debut of the modern Mitsubishi A5M1 Type 96 carrier-borne fighters.
China in 1937On August 13, 1937, war once again struck the coast of Shanghai, thus opening a new front in Central China and relieving the pressure of the Kwantung Army on the front innorthern China. What followed was a military campaign coupled with systematic massacres. The naval aviation was put on high alert immediately after the Marco Polo Bridge incident. However, it did not intervene in the conflict but rather continued its scheduled training program at a rapid pace. On July 23, the Kaigun Koku Hombu altered its dispositions and issued the order to launch the Shanghai operation. The vanguard of the expeditionary force, the Shina Homen Kantai (China Area Fleet), consisted of the aircraft carriers Hosho and Ryujo from the 1st Koku Sentai, subordinated to the 3rd Kantai for the duration of the war. For the time being, they awaited the order to move to the frontline zone at the Sasebo naval base. The Kaga escorted convoys carrying armaments and fresh reinforcements to Shanghai until August 20. By order of the supreme commander of the naval aviation, Prince Higashikuni, 219 first-line combat aircraft were allocated for the campaign in Central China, consisting of 66 fighters, 51 dive bombers, 48 heavy bombers, and 54 torpedo bombers (in the ground-attack role); 30 floatplanes on the catapults of escort cruisers and the seaplane tender Kamoi were designated for reconnaissance, observation, and liaison. The mobilized forces represented nearly 65% of the entire naval aviation strength. Shina Homen Kantai – August 19371st Koku Sentai– under the command of Rear Admiral Shiro Takasu, flagshipRyujoRyujo:vessel commander: Capt. Katsuo Abecommanding aviation officer: Lt. Yasuna Kozonocommanding officer of the fighter Buntai: Lt. Shigeru Itaya12 carrier-basedNakajima A4N1 Type 95fighter aircraft15 carrier-basedAichi D1A1 Type 94dive bombersHosho:vessel commander: Capt. Ryunosuke Kusakacommanding aviation officer: Lt. Kiyoto Hanamoto9 carrier-based Nakajima A4N1 Type 95 fighter aircraft6 carrier-basedYokosuka B3Y1 Type 92attack bombers2nd Koku Sentai– under the command of Rear Admiral Rokuro Horie, flagshipKagaKaga:vessel commander: Capt. Ayao Inagakicommanding aviation officer: Lt. Cmdr. Takeo Shibatacommanding officer of the fighter Buntai: Lt. Chikamasa Igarashi12 carrier-basedNakajima A2N1 Type 90fighter aircraft12 carrier-based Aichi D1A1 Type 94 dive bombers12 carrier-basedMitsubishi B2M1 Type 89attack bombers12 carrier-basedYokosuka B4Y1 Type 96attack bombersLand-Based Aviation Units1st Rengo Kokutai– under the command of Capt. Michitaro Tozuka stationed in Taipei, Formosa, later relocated to Shanghai. Kisarazu Kokutaicommander: Capt. Ryuzo Takenaka6Hiro G2H1 Type 95heavy bombers24Mitsubishi G3M1/M2 Type 96heavy bombersKanoya Kokutaicommander: Capt. Shizue Ishiicommander of the fighter Chutai: Capt. Asaichi Tamai9 Nakajima A4N1 Type 95 fighter aircraft18 Mitsubishi G3M1/M2 Type 96 heavy bombers2nd Rengo Kokutai– under the command of Rear Admiral Teizo Mitsunami stationed at the Omura base, Nagasaki Prefecture on the island of Kyushu, later the Shanghai area. 12th Kokutaicommander: Capt. Osamu Imamuracommander of the fighter Hikotai: Capt. Motoharu Okajima12 Nakajima A4N1 Type 95 fighters12 Aichi D1A1 Type 94 dive bombers12 Yokosuka B3Y1 Type 92 attack bombers13th Kokutaicommander: Capt. Sadatoshi Senda12 Mitsubishi A5M1 Type 96 fighters12 Aichi D1A2 Type 96 dive bombers12 Yokosuka B4Y1 Type 96 attack bombersThe armed action against Shanghai was launched by the Navy with the landing of strong elite naval infantry detachments. The city's defenders, similar to 1932, halted the advance with determined resistance and went on the offensive. The naval infantry was forced to retreat under the protection of the guns of the vessels anchored at the mouth of the Huangpu River. The Chinese did not use bombers from the Hangzhou airfield against the ships, but the danger of the invasion failing still loomed. In the early morning hours of August 14, aNakajima E4N3 Type 90-2reconnaissance floatplane loaded with anti-personnel bombs launched from the catapult of the Izumo. After bombing the positions of Chinese detachments, the aircraft was attacked by a Kuomintang fighter, which fell prey to the aerial gunner and crashed in flames into the Chinese positions. In retaliation, a group of Kuomintang bombers attacked the Izumo. However, they released their bombs too early, directly over the roofs of the Cathay and Palace hotels into an area packed with refugees seeking protection from the gunfire in the International Settlement. According to reports from foreign correspondents, at least 150 refugees died and several hundred suffered injuries. The activated Chinese air force and intelligence reports of the movements ofChiang Kai-shek'sdivisions threatened the landed naval infantry with a flanking maneuver. The Chinese numerical superiority threatened to push the Japanese back into the sea. Reconnaissance floatplanes brought news of another threat in the afternoon. Around the aviation academy in Hangzhou, crews recorded about three hundred aircraft prepared for takeoff. In reality, standing in front of the school hangars were eighteen fully armed Curtiss Hawk fighters of the 23rd Pursuit Squadron of the 4th Pursuit Group under the command of Col. Kao Chih-hang. His pilots represented the elite of the Chinese air force. The alarming rumor regarding the concentration of enemy machines triggered an alert for the Kanoya Kokutai. The previous day they had been grounded due to a typhoon, and bad weather prevailed in the morning as well, but with the prospect of improvement, an order was issued to attack the Central Aviation Academy in Hangzhou to eliminate the identified threat to the expeditionary forces. After takeoff, contrary to the forecast, the weather did not improve, and visibility dropped to a minimum in the heavy rain. The Chinese warning service reacted in time and sounded the alarm even as the aircraft were approaching from the sea individually, as their tight formation had been broken by gale-force winds. Col. Kao Chih-hang and the men of the 23rd Squadron intercepted the bombers before reaching the target at an altitude of 4,300 meters (14,100 feet), and after confirming the lack of fighter escort, the Hawks attacked from an altitude advantage into the blind spot slightly from below and from the rear hemisphere. The Kanoya Kokutai spotted the incoming fighters at the last moment; some of the bombers changed course and attempted to shake off the fighters in a shallow dive. In the ensuing aerial combat, the Japanese suffered significant losses. At the same time the action at Hangzhou collapsed, the Chinese anti-aircraft defense repelled an attack by twenty carrier-based bombers from the aircraft carrier Kaga. Hawks IIandHawks III, in cooperation withBoeing P-26As, shot down ten enemy aircraft over Nanking. In the early evening, the Chinese counterstrike also arrived. A formation of a hundred Hawks, Bredas, Fiats, and Northrops attacked the naval infantry trenches and ships cruising on the Huangpu River and the mouth of the Yangtze. The inadequate training of the predominantly fighter pilots caused most of the bombs to fall among the buildings of the International Settlement and the Shanghai Bank. The Japanese bridgehead escaped unharmed. On August 15, the Kisarazu Kokutai commenced operational activities. The formation took off from the Omura base and, flying towards Nanking, covered a distance of 2,100 kilometers (1,300 miles) in thick cloud cover, which was a record in aerial combat up to that time. From August 14 until the end of September, theKanoyaandKisarazuKokutai visited Nanking, Yangzhou, Xuzhou, Hangzhou, Anqing, and Nanchang with daily regularity in raids they hoped would force the Chinese to capitulate. They flew strictly without fighter escort, a decision paid for with heavy losses. Three days after the start of the offensive, only 18 bombers remained combat-ready. Following the loss of 54 G3M aircraft and damage to 19 others, the air raids were temporarily suspended. The aircraft carriers intervened in the conflict with a delay. On August 16, the Hosho supported the advance of the naval infantry on Shanghai. Fierce fighter dogfights took place in the sky, in which the more experienced imperial pilots gained the upper hand. On the same day, sixA2N1carrier-based fighters under the command of Lt. Igarashi from the Kaga penetrated over the Jiangwan district. The formation was attacked by four Chinese aircraft. Within a few minutes, three of them were shot down. In the afternoon, two Japanese bombers were lost during an air raid on Nanking, three bombers in the vicinity of Changyang, two more machines near Yangzhou, and the Japanese lost one aircraft each over Shanghai, Kashing, and Zhejiang. The Chinese lost six fighters and six were severely damaged. A Chinese air force spokesman also claimed the destruction of five attackers for the loss of two machines from the previous day's carrier bomber raid on Hangzhou. In the afternoon hours, the Central Academy fighters destroyed three Japanese planes, losing three fighters of their own. At a Japanese press conference, the destruction of 87 Chinese aircraft was reported (without the detail that these were mostly training aircraft destroyed on the ground). On August 17, a four-plane Shotai led by Sgt. Toyoda destroyed another two Chinese fighters over Jiangwan. The score of the Kaga's pilots thus grew rapidly. However, this hardly compensated for the destruction of eleven machines from a twelve-plane bomber formation sent to raid Hangzhou, which was once again the result of a raid lacking fighter cover. On August 20, the Japanese launched a series of air raids against railway junctions connecting Shanghai with the outside world. These raids exacted a bloody toll among the masses of civilian refugees at the train stations. The summary of the first half of August revealed unflattering results for the naval aviation. The most critical issue was the haphazard cooperation between fighter and bomber aircraft and the inflexibility of the command. Furthermore, it became evident that the barrage fire of the gunners' 7. 7 mm machine guns was incapable of stopping the attacking Chinese fighters and could not replace the presence of escorting friendly fighters. Even the design concept of the fighters emphasized agility and maneuverability instead of endurance and range. By decision of the naval high command, the aircraft carrier Kaga left the battlefield and headed for Sasebo, where she embarked brand newMitsubishi A5M1 Type 96s, which featured the required parameters. The first operational sortie of the new fighters took place on August 22, but without contact with the enemy. Combat did not occur until September 4, when Lt. Nakajima's Shotai surprised a squadron of Hawk IIIs and set three of them on fire in the dogfight. After landing, the pilots emotionally confirmed that the Type 96 was the best fighter aircraft they had ever piloted: fast, easy to handle, and in all respects superior to the Chinese biplanes and the I-16. Bitter fighting raged over Baoshan. On the same day the A5M1 pilots had their premiere, four machines led by Lt. Tadashi Kaneko from the Ryujo faced a superior force of eighteen Curtisses. Regardless of the unfavorable balance of forces, the Japanese accepted the challenge and shot down six Hawks. The following day in the same location, Lt. Suzuki encountered twenty-eight Chinese fighters. P-26As predominated among them. Despite the numerical disadvantage, the engagement turned into a one-sided affair for the Ryujo's pilots, who claimed nine victories – for which they received a special citation in the daily order. The next morning, landing craft dropped 35,000 soldiers of Gen. Matsui below Shanghai, who unfortunately landed directly beneath the muzzles of concealed Chinese batteries. The barrage swept away the Japanese advance, turning it into a bloodbath within a minute, and among the wounded was the Emperor's cousin, Prince Hiroyoshi Fushimi. For the next five days, the landing force remained pinned down, waiting for reinforcements from three additional divisions. The infantry gained ground in Shanghai at a high and bloody cost. Toward the end of the month, aerial activity subsided considerably. On August 25, three A2N1s commanded by Lt. Harutoshi Okamoto from the Hosho thwarted a bombing attempt by two Martin 139W bombers and shot down one of them. As soon as ground units secured the intact Kunda airfield on the outskirts of Shanghai, the 12th Kokutai, equipped with A4N1 Type 95s, moved to the new base, and on September 9, A5M1 Type 96s belonging to the13th Kokutailanded there. Both units concentrated the elite pilots of the naval aviation, which manifested itself in an effort to destroy the Chinese air forces, often at the expense of cooperation with ground troops. This resulted in disputes among commanders regarding target priorities. The naval command made only one concession and resumed air raids on civilian targets despite warnings from veterans that the limited number of A5M1 Type 96 fighters did not guarantee an adequate level of protection for bomber formations and created conditions for a repeat of the debacle from the beginning of the conflict. Preparations for the offensive were accompanied by feverish rearmament with modern equipment. On September 15, Rear Admiral Rokuro Horie received a dispatch instructing him to immediately unload all carrier-based machines onto the mainland and return to Sasebo, where a new cargo of sixteen A5M1 Type 96s, sixteenB4Y1 Type 96attack bombers, and thirty-twoD1A2 Type 96dive bombers awaited. On September 19, the Japanese launched a ten-day operation aimed at seizing the railway line leading to Nanking, liquidating defensive positions on the approaches to the city, and eliminating the Chinese air force. From the Kunda base, twelve A5M1 fighters under Lt. Yamashita from the 13th Kokutai took off, supplemented by a formation of three A5M1s under Lt. Igarashi and seventeen attack bombers under Lt. Cmdr. Wada from the Kaga. In flight, the formation was further reinforced by sixteen reconnaissance floatplanes of the 3rd Kantai, carrying 60 kg (132 lbs) bombs suspended under their wings. The defense around the capital consisted of elite Kuomintang squadrons armed with Gladiators, Hawks, Boeings, I-15s, and I-16s, an extensive network of anti-aircraft batteries, and a perfectly functioning early warning service. The raid warning arrived in time, and so the Japanese, upon approaching the target, encountered fifty Chinese fighters ready to resist. However, all the defenders' efforts were thwarted by the new A5M1s, which, in the hands of the naval pilots after a quarter-hour dogfight with the Chinese numerical superiority, shot down fifteen Chinese fighters confirmed and three probables. Naval pilot Kiichi Oda shot down three Hawks confirmed and one probable. The price for this success was the write-off of one A5M1, three B4Y1s, and one floatplane. This did not change the fact that the new fighter machines of the Imperial Navy swept the enemy from the sky despite their numerical superiority. The following day, the aircraft carriers Hosho and Ryujo cruised along the coast of Canton. Although the weather was very poor and rough seas complicated launch maneuvers, the aviation officers of both vessels decided to attack the Tianhe and Baiyun airfields, where, according to intelligence information, a large number of combat aircraft of General Wong's former rebellious regime had taken refuge. The action was undertaken by fifteen fighter biplanes, twelve attack bombers, and three dive bombers. Despite strong resistance, the Japanese broke through over the enemy bases and demolished part of the ground installations with bombs. In the air, twelve Hawks fell victim to them, but on the way back, five fighters had to ditch in the sea due to lack of fuel. The crews were pulled from the water by patrolling destroyers. In the afternoon hours, the Japanese returned. While nine bombers destroyed airfield facilities, nine fighters engaged in a dogfight with ten Hawks and sent five of them crashing to the ground in flames. Upon return, the machines were immediately readied for the next mission, this time over Guangdong. Leading the nine fighters and fifteen bombers was the operation commander, Capt. Kozono. The Japanese did not break their winning streak this time either. The Kuomintang struck five fighters off their roster. Before long, a second wave of the same composition arrived over Guangdong, and the situation repeated itself with the same result. The bombing campaign was preceded by psychological pressure. Several days prior to the start, reconnaissance floatplanes dropped leaflets announcing the action and calling for capitulation, which caused panic and many people left the city. On September 22, the sirens sounded a total of three times. The bomber formations of the 2nd Rengo Kokutai were supported by G3M1/M2s of the Kisarazu and Kanoya Kokutai, and army aviation units were also en route to Central China. The three-week autumn bombing offensive turned Nanking into a smoldering ruin. The defense by Chinese fighters did not prevent the triumphant campaign of the 13th Kokutai. The Chinese risked combat with the agile Japanese biplanes, but upon sighting the fast A5M1s, they hastily cleared the battlefield and escaped beyond their reach. By the end of September, the fighters of the 2nd Rengo Kokutai recorded only four shootdowns. This allowed them to devote all the more time to strafing columns of refugees. The transport of A5M1 fighters intensified in October. The aircraft carriers constantly shuttled on the Shanghai-Sasebo route, and the number of combat machines on airfields in Central China grew satisfyingly. The traffic necessitated the construction of five additional satellite bases. The dying Kuomintang air force rallied on October 6 for one of its last tremors of resistance. A patrol of ten A5M1s engaged a formation of twenty-three Chinese fighters and, without any losses of their own, set nine Chinese fighters ablaze. A duel that took place less than a week later proceeded somewhat contradictorily, although this time the Japanese had numerical superiority. The 3:5 result in favor of the Japanese did not bring much praise from the commanders. On October 14, things improved again when they shot down two fighters out of eleven Nanking defenders without any losses. As soon asChiang Kai-shekexhausted his reserves, he evacuated the remaining machines to Nanchang, Hankou, and Chongqing. Therefore, aerial dogfights occurred only rarely during this period. On November 11, 1937, three Northrop 2E bombers attempted to attack the Kaga, but all were destroyed. On October 10, the naval aviation issued the official statistics for the first stage of the conflict. The naval aviation conducted air raids on 61 cities, destroyed 181 enemy aircraft in the air, and destroyed 141 on the ground. In 3,000 combat sorties, it lost 39 fighters and bombers. Data compiled by independent observers, however, speak of a loss of a full 21% of deployed aircraft. Nevertheless, a score of 68 sorties per aircraft is more than good. In mid-November, Hangzhou, lying less than a hundred kilometers (62 miles) from Shanghai, fell. After landing craft dropped 80,000 men of General Heisuke Yanagawa, the defenders resigned and abandoned their defensive positions in panic. Seventy hours after the invasion, the 6th Division of Hisao Tani reached the Shanghai suburb of Songjiang without resistance and set about destroying it. In the north of Shanghai, vessels landed the 16th Division. A scorched earth was left behind the imperial soldiers; the reputation that preceded them undermined the bravery and will of the resisting Chinese. A mass exodus ensued, and the front collapsed. Shanghai capitulated on November 12, 1937. The Western press published eyewitness testimonies and photographs documenting the barbarism that accompanied the urban combat. A photograph of a crying Chinese baby, burned and injured by a Japanese bomb in Shanghai, published by Life magazine, helped turn world opinion against Imperial Japan. These acts, which the West considered violations of international conventions on the conduct of war, were so horrific and occurred so commonly that they provoked concern even in Japan – despite strict censorship. Nevertheless, the Japanese continued their atrocities, and not only that – compared to the massacre that occurred in Nanking, all these barbaric acts seemed almost insignificant. But more on that in the next installment. Sources:Josef Novotný, Kanto Gun (History of the Kwantung Army)Henry Sakaida, Aces of the Rising Sun 1937-1945Robert B. Edgerton, Warriors of the Rising SunLubomír Vejřík, Rise and Fall of the Eagles of Nippon 1931-1941Georgy Zakharov, I Am a Fighter Pilot